Napoleon Victorious! Read online

  The army was reduced in strength and 30,000 officers ordered back to their villages on half pay; for company-grade officers the sum was ‘too much to starve to death on but not quite enough to keep them alive’. They were also forbidden to move, marry or find a new occupation. In return, the Bourbons were increasingly held in contempt, as bluntly expressed by the young Captain Duthilt.

  This family [the Bourbon family of King Louis] returned behind foreign bayonets, and its flag unknown and often fought against by us, replaced that under which we had subjugated by arms the kings of continental Europe; from one side, nobles, émigrés, men who in the past had served as an escort to this dynastic rogue . . . imbued with their old prejudices, desperate to reassume their privileges like feudal rights, hearts full of pride of bile and disposed to overturn the France of today in order to re-establish that which they did not want to forget.5

  There was no better example of a half-pay officer than one Captain Jean-Roch Coignet. He had learned his soldiering in the old Royal Army and put that knowledge to better use fighting for the Republic.

  Too afraid to disband the Old Guard, the Bourbons renamed them the Grenadiers of France in scattered garrisons with a loss of status and pay. They created in their place a royal guard of whom half were officers, who had to be of noble birth. To save money, crippled soldiers who had been cared for in the Invalides were sent back to their villages, as were the orphaned daughters of fallen soldiers, who had been maintained in boarding schools. Troops in their barracks were forbidden to discuss the events of the Revolution or the wars of the Empire. The huge numbers of returned prisoners of war, many of them sick, were simply abandoned. The public was outraged when the Bourbons purposely debased the Legion of Honour established by Napoleon in 1802 to reward the very best of valour and achievement. In less than a year they passed out more Legions of Honour than a Napoleon had in twelve years – for a price. Their only popular act was the abolition of the hated conscription.

  Artois and his sons were despised, and seemingly took every opportunity to earn that sentiment. Berry had a rabid temper and openly struck officers. His brother and he openly paraded before the troops in the uniforms of Russian generals. Berry attempted to copy Napoleon’s blunt familiarity with the troops, only to find that it fell flat. He told one soldier that now he was regularly paid, but under Napoleon his pay had always been in arrears. The man replied, ‘What is it to you if we decided to offer him credit?’ On another occasion one of the royals was going to review a large garrison mounted on one of Napoleon’s white horses. No sooner had he put his foot in the stirrup than the horse began to sidle away, dragging him across the barracks square to the delight of Napoleon’s veterans. All too often when troops were ordered to shout ‘Vive le Roi! ’, they instead thundered ‘Vive l’Empereur! ’ Bourbon paranoia soared. It was no wonder that the veterans kept a tricolour cockade safely hidden inside their shakos.

  The large number of discharged or half-pay officers who gathered in Paris were contemptuous and rowdy and not above teaching a harsh lesson to any foolish young émigré officer who happened upon them. They openly referred to Louis as le cochon (the pig), ‘and in playing cards they referred to the “pig” of hearts or spades instead of the king’. They sang the Marseillaise and would drink to his health, or ask in a low voice, ‘Do you believe in Jesus Christ?’ to which the answer was, ‘Yes, and in his resurrection.’6

  They would have given Napoleon’s former marshals their opinion in blunt soldier language. After all, almost every one of those marshals had started out as an enlisted man to find a marshal’s baton in his knapsack. All of his marshals, save Louis-Nicholas Davout, the Iron Marshal – and the only one whom Napoleon truly respected – had made their peace with the Bourbons, some more supinely than others. Davout was the only one of Napoleon’s marshals whose martial ability bore comparison with the Emperor’s. He was consistently successful whether as a subordinate or in independent command, the latter state in which most of the rest of the marshals failed. It was Davout who defeated with his one corps the major part of the Prussian army at Auerstedt in the 1806 campaign. After Napoleon’s abdication in 1814, Davout marched his 26,000 men home from Hamburg, where they had stood siege, in such fine condition as to elicit the praise of British observers. He firmly refused to kiss the royal hand. He simply retired to his estate, defying his official disgrace and threat of prosecution. He was a Bonapartist to the core.

  Marshal of France Louis-Alexandre Berthier, Prince of Neuchâtel and Wagram, had been referred to as the Emperor’s wife, a backhanded compliment that showed how completely Napoleon and he formed the first great team of commander and chief of the general staff, the happy marriage described by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg of his relationship with Erich Ludendorf in a later war. Berthier held the singular position of Major General or Chief of the General Staff (Etat Major Général) in modern terms. The general staff was Berthier’s domain, into which the Emperor never intervened. He never had to.

  Berthier had begun his career as an officer in the Royal Army and fought in the American War of Independence with the French expeditionary force under Rochambeau. He supported the Revolution, but as chief of staff to the Versailles National Guard he protected the sisters of Louis XVI and helped them escape. He continued to distinguish himself in chief of staff assignments. A contemporary wrote of Berthier in 1796, when he became Napoleon’s chief of staff in Italy, that he possessed:

  a remarkable grasp of everything to do with war. He had also, above all else, the gift of writing a complete order and transmitting it with the utmost speed and clarity . . . No one could have better suited General Bonaparte, who wanted a man capable of relieving him of all detailed work, to understand him instantly and to foresee what he would need.7

  Years later Henry Houssaye would pen a summary of the work ethos of this unique man who made this system work:

  Indefatigable, conscientious, diligent, prompt in grasping the most complicated orders, executing them in every detail with admirable minuteness, clearness, and precision, very punctual in transmitting them at the appointed time, he had been a perfect instrument in Napoleon’s hands. With him the Emperor’s mind was at rest. The orders were always worded as to admit of no possibility of doubt or hesitation as to the manner of their execution. These orders always arrived safely, for Berthier would dispatch them, if need be, by eight different officers on eight different routes.8

  Berthier had also created the general staff system later to be copied by the Prussians and eventually every other modern army. Under Berthier, the general staff became a hive of efficiency that gave the widest scope to Napoleon’s genius. No one has described it better than the late, brilliant Col. John Elting.

  Berthier’s operational instructions were simple and should be engraved inside every modern staff officer’s skull. The chief of staff is the headquarters pivot. He must see everything that comes in and sign (or at least approve) everything that goes out. The assistant chiefs of staff must keep abreast of the general situation in addition to running their own sections. Speed and accuracy are the most important factors in staff work. The staff exists only for the good of the army and so has no regular office hours. It works as long as may be necessary, rests when it has nothing left to do, ready to move out, regardless of the hour or ‘pain’ involved. Up-to-the-minute intelligence on enemy forces and actions must always be available; therefore, reconnaissance must be continuous to the front and flanks, and results reported promptly. Finally, the commander-in-chief must always be told the truth, the whole truth, and nothing else – no matter how unpleasant the results may be.9

  After Napoleon’s abdication, Berthier threw in his lot with the Bourbons, more out of a sense of duty to France than any affection for a royal house that inspired none. Their favourable treatment of him may have had something to do with the aid he had given to the sisters of Louis XVI (brother to Louis XVIII). He had to watch in pained silence as the Bourbons disbanded his creation of the ge
neral staff. He was 61, had been wounded in 1814, had been at war for most of the years since he had served in America. By the time Napoleon abdicated, he was physically exhausted and morally drained.

  Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Duke of Dalmatia, showed far more enthusiasm for the new regime. Soult was one of the first marshals made by Napoleon. The Emperor called him the premier manoeuvrier (first tactician) in Europe; he had a keen strategic sense and was one of the few to come close to reading Napoleon’s mind. He was one of the even smaller number whose advice Napoleon took seriously. That had aroused the jealousy of Berthier, who could be depended on to make things difficult for Soult.

  A sergeant in the old Royal Army, Soult rose in the wars of the Revolution to division command through a natural talent for leadership and a gift for aggressive and clever tactics. He was so highly recommended that Napoleon made him commander of the consular guard. Later, even more impressed, he put him in command of the French forces assembling for the invasion of England at Boulogne. Over two years of intensive training he essentially forged the Grande Armée – a term that came to denote the principal French field army commanded by Napoleon. At Austerlitz in 1805 his corps broke the enemy centre in the attack on the Pratzen Heights. He also fought well at Jena in 1806 and Eylau the next year.

  Soult spent the next five years campaigning in Spain. A British officer would say of him, ‘Every British officer who had the honour to serve against him had a great respect for him. If King Joseph had accepted his advice the fate of the War might have been different.’ The British soldiers in their own way showed their respect when they referred to him as the ‘Duke of Damnation’ in salute. He went from victory to victory against Spanish forces and drove the British army under Gen. Sir John Moore out of Spain. In the Battle of Coruña, where Moore fell, Soult left a monument to his valour and ability. Despite the absence of unity of command among the French in Spain, over the next four years Soult’s efforts were impressive – crushing Spanish and Portuguese armies, pacifying Andalusia, sending Wellington scurrying back into Portugal, and fighting a British–Portuguese army to standstill at Albuera although outnumbered three to two. While in Spain Soult earned the reputation of being ‘a plunderer in the world class’, making off with 1.5 million francs’ worth of Spanish art.10

  If Soult had a fault it was staying too far to the rear after committing his subordinates to battle. His flank attack at Albuera was brilliant, initially crushing the British line, but it petered our in the absence of the only man who could have pushed it forward. Wellington commented that Soult knew well how to bring his army to battle but was not quite sure what to do with it once it was engaged.

  Napoleon recalled Soult to Germany in the spring of 1813, where he contributed much to the victories commanding the Guard at Lützen and Bautzen. With the collapse of the French position in Spain, Napoleon sent him back to defend the southern frontier, but Soult was unable to stop Wellington, who defeated him three times without being able to break his army, which Soult was always able to extricate skilfully.

  Soult stood by Napoleon to the end in 1814 and only agreed to an armistice with Wellington when he received news of the Emperor’s abdication. Although politically astute, he was not political; his loyalty had been to Napoleon and France. With Napoleon gone, France became his focus. An abrasive, cold man, he had few friends among the marshalate and no few enemies, which may explain why King Louis made him Minister of War. He was just the one to reduce the French army to the small force the Allies demanded, a task he accomplished with considerable ruthless efficiency. Nevertheless, he instituted necessary reforms and intensified training.

  ‘The tallest, most loyal, most generally liked, and the only English speaker or writer [with an English mother] among the marshalate bore the names Marshal Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier. Genial, unflamboyant, and not self-seeking . . .’, in 1804 he was one of the first men to receive his marshal’s baton from Napoleon. Napoleon had been impressed with his considerable administrative skill as commander of the Paris garrison and his brilliant execution of the independent command to overrun and govern Hanover. For his performance at Friedland in 1808, Napoleon made Mortier Duke of Treviso. He was responsible for the French victory over the Spanish at Ocaña in 1809. His treatment of the British wounded left at Talavera earned him a letter of thanks from the future Duke of Wellington. In the invasion of Russia, he ably commanded the Young Guard, and in the 1813 campaign at the head of the rebuilt Young Guard he delivered the decisive attacks at Lützen and Bautzen. The next year in the defence of France he commanded the Old Guard in a brilliant series of actions. With the Bourbon restoration it was his sad duty to disband the Young Guard. Recognizing his ability, the King gave him command of the 16th Military Division at Lille.11

  Louis made great efforts to cultivate and honour Marshal Michel Ney, whom Napoleon had once called ‘the bravest of the brave’. Ney was the most popular of the marshals in France for his impetuosity, the beau idéal of the furor franciscus, and the King needed an intermediary who could tame this most Bonapartist element of the French nation. But Ney was not a temperate or thoughtful man, described as ‘thoroughly insubordinate to any commander but the Emperor himself, besides being unreasonably touchy, quarrelsome, and uncooperative’. He was such an enemy of Soult that he had withheld the reinforcements that would have allowed Soult to utterly destroy Moore’s British army at Coruña.12 Napoleon in his exile had not forgotten that Ney had taken the lead in demanding his abdication.

  The Bourbons quickly soured with the general public as well; the economy was poor and unemployment high. Everyone who had acquired confiscated property from aristocracy or the Church because of the Revolution would see the Crown force its return. As the new year broke, people began to talk of violets, predicting that they would bloom again in spring, and the soldiers in their barracks spoke of the hoped-for return of Jean de l’Epée ( John of the Sword), the army’s affectionate nickname for Napoleon.13

  Another irritant to the army was the presence of the Duke of Wellington, first as the commander of the Allied army of occupation and then as British ambassador. Count Maximilien Sebastien Foy was that rare French general who was on good personal terms with Wellington. He was one of the few generals who had fought in the Peninsula and still emerged with his reputation intact. He had been wounded by a shell splinter in the shoulder, left for dead, and captured in the last battle of Wellington’s invasion of southern France early in 1814 at Orthez. To his surprise, he was visited by Wellington, who shook his hand, and, as Foy wrote in his diary, ‘Nous avons parlé guerre’ (We spoke of war). Foy was ‘deeply moved’ and retained his high regard for the man for the rest of his life.

  Nevertheless, despite his high regard, he later refused the Duke’s invitation to a ball at his official residence in Paris, writing on 26 October 1814:

  We who were lately masters of Europe, to what servitude we are reduced? Lord Wellington is the Commander-in-Chief of the army of occupation in Belgium. Our telegraph is at his disposal two hours daily to send orders to his troops. He signs his letters from his headquarters in Paris; he has an air of saying to us: if you sit on the fence it will be me you will be up against. We see him coming away from the King en frac [morning coat] and in boots. The Princes go and dine with him after manoeuvres. O Napoléon, où est tou [‘Oh, Napoleon, where are you?’]14

  26 February – Portoferraio, Elba

  Napoleon stood on the quarterdeck of his 300-ton brig, L’Inconstant, in the dusk as his 607 grenadiers of the Old Guard boarded. They had all volunteered to come with him in his exile to this pleasant little island off Genoa. Now they looked up at him, waiting. They marvelled at the change in him since their arrival the previous May. The weight had dropped off him as he rode and walked the roads and trails of his operetta kingdom. Some of the older ones remarked how much he looked the man of Marengo and Austerlitz, his movements quick and supple. The flash of his eyes had new power. They did not know that in exile he had re
ad the observation of Socrates that a man should stay fit to be able to defend the state and, most tellingly, ‘Besides, it is a disgrace to grow old through sheer carelessness before seeing what manner of man you may become by developing your bodily strength and beauty to their highest limit.’ He had looked down at his paunch and was seized with the determination to rebuild the body that had given his genius wings.15

  Now he told the men their destination was France. That was all he was able to say before they thundered back, ‘Paris or Death!’

  Timing is everything, and Napoleon had a special talent for recognizing it. All autumn and winter, visitors had been telling him that the Bourbons were alienating the French people and the army. He smiled when told that when the troops were ordered to shout, ‘Vive le Roi! ’ they added under their breath, ‘de Rome’, meaning the King of Rome, the title Napoleon had given his son. ‘So they still love me,’ he said to this. The Allies at the Congress of Vienna appeared to be on the point of seriously falling out. Russia wanted all of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony. Austria and Britain were opposed, and Talleyrand, the French representative, had thrown his support to them, re-establishing France as a major player on the European stage. When their machinations came to light, an outraged Tsar Alexander I challenged the Austrian representative, Prince Metternich, to a duel and threatened to throw him out of a window. So, as February waned, Napoleon was ready to move. All it took was for his British minder to leave for Genoa to visit his mistress. Napoleon quickly had L’Inconstant painted in British colours, loaded his thousand followers on it and eight other small ships, and seized the main chance.